9. People on the Move

Antioch was, as we have seen, the third largest city in the Greco-Roman Empire. It may have housed 600,000 residents. If we could have visited the city in the first century AD and looked at it with contemporary eyes, we would have been struck by the human skill and ingenuity that made the metropolis possible. We would have admired the large public buildings, the three-story residential homes and the paved roads, but even more the organisation that enabled so many people in such a small area to be provided with food and water, clothes and other necessities of life.

A floor mosaic (from about 400 AD) gives us precisely such a conducted tour of daily life in Antioch in a series of little scenes that make up its border. Some of the scenes, no doubt, reflect life as it was at the beginning of the Christian era.

Street scenes depicted in the floor mosaic of a villa in Antioch. Notice the two-storeyed colonnaded house. A slave balances a load on his head and holds a basket in his hand. A woman, perhaps a barmaid in front of a pub, offers a customer a mug of wine.

* We see a glimpse of the main highway which, we know, was paved, colonnaded and even roofed over for a distance of two miles. Riding down it we see a man on a horse preceded by his servant on foot.
* We see single and two-story buildings in the streets; a slave with a heavy roll that looks like a carpet on his back.
* A little further on we notice an elegant woman who walks holding the hand of her child and who looks back at someone waving from the balcony of a house; a friend she has been visit­ing, perhaps.
* A man driving two donkeys laden with goods walks down astreet. It was a city regulation that farmers bringing their produce to the city markets were required to take back refuse from the city to the country! This they did, using it as manure for their land.
* Then we see a street-trader selling food from his table stall.
* We see statues of famous people on top of pillars.
* In another scene two men are playing a game at a table in front of a house. The scenes so simply designed in the mosaic, vividly recall local life and customs. It shows that Antioch was quite an active city.

A slave carries a mattress

A lot of work was done by slaves who stood at the bottom of the social ladder. They had been bought from various countries or captured during military campaigns. Slaves were used as cheap labour in the domestic and civic domains. They filled many niches: they worked as farm hands on plantations, as carriers in the docks and in transport; as clerks and accountants to service the international trading exchanges; as local adminis­trative staff in public offices; as cooks, servants and maids in private homes; as assistant shopkeepers, street vendors and cleaners of the city's sewers and latrines.

However, cities like Antioch did not flourish because of the small wealthy elite on top or the huge unskilled labour force at the bottom. It flourished because of the hard working and enterprising skilled classes in the middle. Their ingenuity and energy were vital for the prosperity of all. And they were composed of many groups. The traditional craftsmen still held a key position: the potters, the leather workers, the smiths, the weavers, the glass blowers and the makers of scent. The building sector relied on masons who could work with stones, bricks or tiles; on carpenters and engineers who could construct pumps, treadmills, scaffolding and cranes; on architects who designed aqueducts, tunnels, bridges and vaulted domes; on artists who painted frescoes or laid mosaics. Then there was the service sector of teachers, physicians, lawyers, secretaries, watchmen and soldiers. Last not least, Antioch had a thriving business community: wholesale dealers who imported and exported large quantities of wheat, oil, wine, wool and other basic materials; the local shopkeepers who provided households with their daily supplies of necessities and luxury goods; and the publicans in taverns and inns.

Many of these professions were held by ordinary citizens or by slaves who had been specially trained. A middle group was formed by the freedmen: former slaves who had gained their freedom for services rendered.

The Early Christians were derived from all social classes. But a good many of them belonged to the upwardly mobile, enterprising and creative 'middle' sectors of society. 'The typical Christian was a free artisan or small trader'. (1) 'Christians were recruited from the urban circles of prosperous craftsmen, traders and practitioners of free professions'.(2) They gave to their communities the enthusiasm and commitment of people who have learned to fend for themselves.

Let us look at some typical Christians. One of them was Erastos, the 'city treasurer of Corinth'. The title designates him as an important official charged with administering the funds and properties of the city. He could exercise this function as a free person or, as we know from contemporary records, as a public slave, a slave owned by the city. What counted was not his status, but his experience and skill. In this particular case we know Erastos was a free person. For on a dedication stone excavated at Corinth we read that a certain Erastos had been made an aedile, that is: one of the top four administrators of the city. It is likely that after his job as city treasurer, Erastos was promoted to be aedile. Historians surmise that Erastos was given these posts as 'a Corinthian freedman who had acquired considerable wealth in commercial activities'.(3)

Lydia is another good example. Although she lived in Philippi, a coastal town of Macedonia, her place of origin was Thyatira in Asia Minor and her profession was the sale of purple cloth, a luxury item known to have been manufactured there. She must have established herself in the Greek harbour town because of its promise of trade. She was also the head of her household, and her home was large enough to accommo­date Paul and at least three companions for a considerable time.(4)

Phoebe of Cenchreae, the harbour of Corinth, was deacon in her community and Paul calls her 'a superior' of manypeople and himself.(5) The title 'superior' could be construed to mean 'benefactress' or 'patroness'. Usually, however, it denoted the office of the president of a club or a guild; or, in the context of city administration, an official charged with such business as enrolling new citizens, receiving testimonies, and determining the budget for state sacrifices. Phoebe's independent status is also shown by her ability to travel to Rome, presumably in connection with state business or private enterprise.

Of the eighty individuals belonging to Pauline communities whom we know by name, about thirty yield clues about their position in society. Most of them are representative of the creative, enterprising and responsible groups I have described above.(6) Appreciating their level of involvement is crucial for assessing the third Gospel, the Gospel according to Luke.

Luke's Preface

Luke's Gospel differs from Matthew's and Mark's by the declared intention with which it begins.

Since many people have undertaken to compose a report about the events which God has brought to fulfilment among us, in harmony with the traditions of those who from the beginning have been eyewitnesss and ministers of the word, I too have decided, after carefully checking everything from the start, to write a systematic account of it for you, O excellent Theophilos, so that you may know the reliability of the words about which you have been instructed.

The preface makes immediate sense in the light of what we have seen in previous chapters. Luke who knows Urmark (or Mark itself) and the collection of sayings we call Quelle, feels that another written account of the teaching about Jesus will be the eyewitnesses and catechists. He declares his aim: to check everything carefully and prove the reliability of the 'words' passed on in the instruction.

Scholars used to compare this introduction to prefaces written by Greek or Roman history writers.(8) Recent research, however, has shown it fits in best with prefaces at the beginning of practical handbooks written for people who were learning a skill.(9) Hellenistic society produced a wide variety of manuals, which were intended to pass on the skills and traditions of particular trades. This 'professional prose' encompassed books on principles of mathematics, the construction of water mills for irrigation, navigation by the stars, herbal medicine, the art of correspondence and similar specific skills.(10) Luke wrote for practical people who were used to this kind of manual. By his preface Luke indicated that his book was similar in purpose: to help students assimilate a course of instruction.

Luke's purpose is confirmed by the particular kind of Greek used. The New Testament writers did not employ classical Greek, the Greek used by official speakers and literary authors. Neither did they use the vernacular koine (means: 'common language') of everyday talk, a popular slang found on papyri (11) that contain correspondence or invoices. They used a kind of language in between, 'literate but not literary', a sort of professional koine that was designed to convey practical information.(12) Luke, whose style is so good that he must have known Homer and other great classics, deliberately omits the poetic allusions and quotations that pervade literary writings.(13) By his preface and his style Luke firmly puts his Gospel within the professional stream of factual, instructional communication.(14)

Who was Luke? Second-century documents of the Early Church identify the author of the Gospel as the Luke whom we meet in the New Testament as a companion of Paul.(15) The ancient texts also say that Luke was a physician from Antioch in Syria.(16) Since the book of Acts and the Gospel of Luke have been written by the same author,(17) we can combine such external testimonies with information gleaned from both books. It is obvious, for example, that Luke is familiar with the community at Antioch in its initial years (18) and that he shared some of Paul's travels.(19) Probably Luke was a Syrian from Antioch who became a Christian and who offered his services to the community. If he was a physician, he may have been a slave in a Christian household - since it was usually slaves who were trained to practice medicine. Or he may have gained his freedom in later life, as quite a few did. (20) Whatever is true of these details, Luke certainly was a man of the world, a Hellenist, who was anxious to introduce Jesus Christ to people like himself. (21)

Who was the ‘Theophilos’ to whom Luke dedicates both the Gospel and the Acts? (22) Was it a literary fiction, since theophilos means 'beloved by God'? Probably not. Theophilos must have been some actual person, a prominent Gentile convert in Greece or Asia Minor. But through him Luke addressed the thousands of men and women who, like himself, strove to make their world a part of Jesus' Kingdom of God. (23)

Christian life

The composition of Luke's Gospel follows the geographical pattern of Mark (Galilee, minor journeys, passion in Jerusalem) except for one major addition: Jesus' journey to Jerusalem. The insertion is known as Luke's 'travel narrative'. It spans ten chapters (24)In this section Luke presents many texts from Quelle and from his own sources, stringing them together by the common theme of'going up to Jerusalem'.

*As the days drew near for him to be taken up to heaven, he set his face to go up to Jerusalem. (25)
*(The Samaritans) would not give him hospitality because his face was set towards Jerusalem. (26)
*He went on his way through towns and villages, imparting his teaching while travelling to Jerusalem. (27)
*‘I must be on my way ....No prophet can die away from Jerusalem’. (28)
* On the way to Jerusalem he passed through the border country between Samaria and Galilee.(29)
*He said: 'Behold, we are going up to Jerusalem: . . . .(30)
*He went on to tell a parable, as he was near to Jerusalem:
*After saying this, he went on ahead, going up to Jerusalem.(31)
* And when he drew near and saw the city of Jerusalem, he wept. (32)

Jesus did make a final journey to Jerusalem. But in Luke's Gospel it has also become a narrative device. Luke enlarges the journey and makes it the setting for many traditions which actually happened on other occasions. Many of the things Luke makes Jesus say and do during this journey, Matthew reports in other contexts.(33) We can be sure, therefore, that the travel narrative is a literary construction by Luke for a special teaching purpose.

Why did Luke stress the journey? Jerusalem played a central role in salvation history, of course.(34) Jesus' coming to Jerusalem was God's last 'visitation' of his holy city before its destruction by the Romans.(35) But the image of 'travelling' was in itself important for Luke. He saw our Christian life as a journey with Jesus, a living with him through suffering to glory. (36) That is why the Gospel ends with the beautiful account of the two disciples who walk on their way to Emmaus. (37) Jesus is with them all the time, explaining Scripture to them so that they understand what God is doing in their lives. Luke tells us through this that the Risen Jesus is with us in the people he gives us as companions on the road. (38)

However, Luke tells us that the two disciples recognised Jesus at the breaking of the bread.(39) This shows the other side of the coin. We are not only people on the move who travel with Jesus; we also sit at Jesus' table. No other Gospel has focussed so much attention on meals, banquets and table fellowship. Jesus himself is 'always eating'. He always seems to be coming from a meal, at a meal or going to a meal. Sharing food and drink indicates a sharing of life. The Eucharist thus becomes an image of our living together with Jesus and each other.

Once our eyes are opened to the meaning of this imagery, we begin to notice how Luke teaches us a lot about what a Christian community should be like.

* Our community should be open. Jesus ate with tax collectors and sinners in spite of the criticism of the Pharisees.(40) God does not reject anyone; as Jesus shows through the parables of the lost sheep, the lost coin and the prodigal son.(41)
* Jesus tells us to invite the poor when we prepare a meal, because in his community all are welcome: the have-nots, the maimed, the lame and the blind.(42)
* Through the parable of the great banquet Jesus teaches that God's invitation goes out to all. 'Bring in the poor, the maimed, the blind and the lame'.(43)
*It is in the community that people can experience love and forgiveness. This is brought out in the story of the woman who wiped Jesus' feet with her hair. (44)
* We should take the lowest seats in the community (45) and even leaders should wait on others.(46)
* The community makes us experience Christian joy. We are a happy family celebrating God's goodness to us. 'Bring the fatted calf and kill it. Let us eat and celebrate!'(47)
*Zaccheus came down from the tree and received Jesus into his home with joy.(48)Our sharing food together marks us as a community of love.(49)

Fellow Travellers

It is impossible in such a short chapter to do justice to all aspects of Luke's Gospel. (50) I would like to highlight two groups of people that feature prominently in his presentation: business people and women.

Luke has a great interest in the theme of material possessions, in the contrast between rich and poor. (51) Leaving aside other implications, (52) we may note how Luke appeals directly to people's experience of conducting business. While drawing in this on Jesus' teaching, he gives it sharper relief. Here too the image of the shrewd business man or business woman takes on a deeper symbolism. (53)

* A rich landlord knows how to build larger stores for his harvest, but he has not learnt how to be 'rich for God'. (54)
* The unjust manager of an estate who ensures future support for himself by cheating his landlord, teaches us to be as clever in the affairs of God as people are in the affairs of the world. (55)
* Those entrusted with the management of people and property are expected to produce results. The same applies to responsibility in God's Kingdom.(56)
* Just as we should calculate the cost of building another story on our house, so should we be aware of the cost of becoming Jesus' disciple. (57)

Luke selected with preference texts from Jesus' teaching in which skilled workers and professional people are held out as examples. It reflects the group of active Christians for whom he is writing.

Another important section in the community were its women. Luke goes out of his way to include women in his Gospel. He carefully balances every mention of men with an equal mention of women.

* In the infancy narrative Zechariah receives a promise of a child, but so does Mary. (58) The people of Israel who welcome Jesus to the Temple are represented by Simeon and Anna. (59)
* Jesus heals the man possessed by a demon and he heals Peter's mother-in-law.(60) He gives life to the centurion's slave and the son of the widow of Nairn. (61) On the Sabbath he heals a woman and a man.(62)
* Luke presents many parables in pairs: the man who plants a mustard seed matches the woman putting leaven into the dough; (63) the shepherd looking for his lost sheep matches the woman sweeping her house for a lost coin; (64) the man waking up his neighbour at night matches the widow pestering the judge for help. (65)
* On the last day, Jesus says, 'two men will sleep in one bed; one will be taken, the other left. Two women will grind at the same mill stone; one will be taken, the other left.’ (66)
* Jesus is followed by twelve disciples whose names are known. (67) Jesus is also followed by a number of women whom Luke mentions by name: 'Mary from Magdala who had been freed from seven demons; Joanna, the wife of Chuza, Herod's courtier; Susanna, and many others who provided for Jesus and the apostles out of their own resources'.(68)

Some authors maintain Luke uses these examples to restrict the roles of women in the community. (69) Most authors, however, agree that Luke ascribed to women a role and a measure of equality well beyond the expectations of his time.(70) The special position accorded to Mary, the mother of Jesus, confirms this assessment. Mary is portrayed as the ideal disciple whose example all, men and women alike, should emulate.(71)

Active Involvement

The Gospel of Luke was written to stimulate a deeper commitment to Christ and a more active participation in the community. People must not think that preaching the Kingdom of God was only entrusted to the twelve apostles and their successors. To refute such a misunderstanding Luke narrates that, after sending the twelve, Jesus sent another seventy discipies, two by two. (72) Does it not remind us of the journey of the two disciples who were walking to Emmaus? (73)

Luke is here thinking of all Christians, men and women, who go out to serve the community as teachers, catechists, deacons and deaconesses, prophets and prophetesses, healers, organisers, carers of the young, the old and the sick. All of them are witnesses to Jesus. (74)

* 'People will arrest you and hand you over to synagogues and prisons. You will be brought before kings and governors for my name's sake. That will be an opportunity for you to bear witness'.(75)
* 'It is written in Scripture that the Christ should suffer and rise from the dead on the third day, and that repentance and forgiveness of sins should be preached in his name to all nations, beginning from Jerusalem. You will be witnesses of all these things!'(76)
* 'You shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem, in the whole of Judea, in Samaria and to the ends of the earth!'(77)

Luke's Gospel gives us a vision of men and women walking into the world in all directions to bring the love and peace which Jesus preached. 'He sent them on ahead of himself, two by two, into every town and village where he was about to come.(78)

QUESTIONS FOR STUDY

1. Luke recounts that two specific groups received advice from John the Baptist (Luke 3,12-14):

Tax collectors came to be baptised and said to him:
'Teacher, what shall we do?' He replied: 'Collect no more: than what is your due'.
Soldiers (= police) also asked him: 'What about us?
What shall we do?' He answered: 'Treat no one with violence. Level no false accusations. Be content with your wages'.

Would you have expected the advice that they needed to change their occupation?

2. The 'women who followed Jesus from Galilee 'were an important group among Jesus' disciples (see Luke 8,1-3).

They witnessed Jesus' crucifixion (Luke 2,49).
They assisted in his burial (Luke 23,55-56).
They were the first to see the empty tomb (Luke 24,1-11).

Why does Luke stress their involvement in Jesus' passion and resurrection?

3. Consider Jesus' admonition (Luke 14,10-11):

When you are invited to a party, occupy the lowest seat, Then when your host comes, he will say to you: 'Friend, go higher up!' It will be an honour to you in front of all those who are at table with you.

If dining with Jesus is an image of our Christian discipleship, what is Jesus saying here about our place in the community?

4. When the seventy disciples returned (Luke 10,17), Jesus thanked the Father for giving his special revelation to 'small children' (Luke 10,21). What do you make of that?

Footnotes

1. W.MEEKS, ‘The social context of Pauline Theology', Interpretation 36 (1982) pp. 267-270.

2. H.KREISSIG, 'Zur Zusammensetzung der frühchristlichen Gemeinden im Jahrhundert', Eirene 6 (1967) p. 99.

3. Romans 16,23: W.MEEKS, The First Urban Christians, New Haven 1983, pp. 58-59.

4. Acts 16,14-15. A.WIKENHAUSER, Die Apostetgeschichte und ihr Geschichtswert, Münster 1921, pp. 410-411

5. Romans 16-2. The term used is prostasis. See E.A.JUDGE, The Social Pattern of Christian Groups in the First Century, London 1960, pp. 128-129.

6. W.MEEKS, ‘The Social Level of Pauline Christians', in The First Urban Christians, New Haven 1983, pp. 51-63; G.THEISSEN, 'Social Stratification in the Corinthian Community', in The Social Setting of Pauline Christianity, Edinburgh 1982, pp. 99-109.

7. Luke 1,1-4.

8. H.J.CADBURY, ‘The purpose expressed in Luke's Preface', TheExpositor (June 1921) pp. 431-441; 'The knowledge claimed in Luke's Preface', The Expositor (December 1922) pp. 401-420.

9. L.ALEXANDER, 'Luke's Preface in the Context of Greek Preface-writing', Novum Testamentum 28 (1986) pp. 48-74.

10. 1. M.FURHMANN, Das systematische Lehrbuch: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Wissenschaften in der Antike, Göttingen 1960.

11. Ordinary writing was done on strips of inferior paper made from papyros reed. A sheet of this material is known as a 'papyrus'.

12. RYDBECK, Fachprosa vermeintliche Volkssprache und Neues Testament, Uppsala 1967.

13 . G.GLOCKMANN, Homer in der frühchristlichen Literatur bis Justinus, München 1968, pp. 59-65.

14. J.A.MALHERBE, Social Aspects of Early Christianity, Louisiana 1977, esp. pp. 16-19.

15. Philemon 24; Colossians 4,14; 2 Timothy 4,11.

16. 'Luke, the beloved physician' (Colossians 4); 'Luke was a physician' (Muratorian Canon); Luke was a Syrian of Antioch by profession a physician' (Anti-Marcionite Prologue).

17. This is not disputed by any scholar today. See B.E.BECK, 'The Common Authorship of Luke and Acts', New Testament Studies 23 (1976-1977) pp. 346-352; S.H.PRICE, 'The Authorship of Luke-Acts', Expository Times 55 (1943-1944) p.194.

18. Acts 11,19-20; 13,1-4; 14,26-28; 15,1-3; 15,13-40; 18,22-23.

19. This is deduced from the so-called we-sections in Acts, the sections where the author includes himself: Acts 16,10-17; 20,5-15; 21,148; 27,1-28,16.

20. 'We might speculate that Luke had been a medicus in some Roman familia, receiving the name of his master (Lucius, of which Luke is a hypocorism) on his manumission (his being set free)'; W.MEEKS, The First Urban Christians, New Haven 1983, p. 57.

21. A long and detailed discussion of all aspects regarding authorship can be found in J.A.FITZMYER, The Gospel according to Luke, vol.1, New York 1982, pp. 35-62.

22. Luke 1,3; Acts 1,1.

23. See also M.A.MOSCATS, 'Current Theories regarding the Audience of Luke-Acts', Currents in Theology and Mission 3 (1976) pp. 355-361.

26. Luke 9,53; Samaritans disagreed with Jewish worship at Jerusalem (see John 4,20) and often harassed Jewish pilgrims.

33. For example, Jesus' warning against worldly worries which Luke puts inside the journey (Luke 12,22-31), Matthew presents in the sermon on the mount (Matthew 6,25-34).

34. Read Luke 9,31; 24,47.50-53; Acts 1,8; and so on.

35. Luke 19,41-44; H.EGELKRAUT, Jesus' Mission to Jerusalem: a redaction-critical study of the Travel Narrative in the Gospel of Luke, Frankfurt 1976

36. W.C.ROBINSON, ‘The Theological Context for Interpreting Luke's Travel Narrative', Journal for Biblical Literature 79 (1960) pp. 20-31; F.STAGG, 'The Journey toward Jerusalem in Luke's Gospel’, P.J.BERNADICOU, 'Self-Fulfilment According to Luke', Bible Today 56 (1971) pp. 505-512; id. , The Spirituality of Luke's Travel Narrative', Review for Religious 36 (1977) pp. 455-466.

37. Luke 24,13-35.

38. A.EHRHARDT, "The Disciples of Emmaus', New Testament Studies 10 (1963-1964) pp. 182-201; R.DILLON, From Eye­witnesses to Ministers of the Word. Tradition and Composition in Luke 24, Rome 1978; J.M.GUILLAUME, Luc interprêt des anciennes traditions sur la résurrection de Jésus, Paris 1979.

48. Luke 19,6; see also Luke 1,14; 2,11; 10,17; 13,17; and the banquet of joy for all nations announced in Isaiah 25,6-10.

49. J.DUPONT, 'Le Repas d'Emmäus', Lumière et Vie 31 (1957) pp. 77-92; E.GALBIATO, 'Gli invitati ai convito', Bibbia e Oriente 1 (1965) pp. 129-135; J.NAVONE, Themes of St.Luke, Rome 1970, pp. 11-37; RJ.KARRIS, Luke: Artist and Theologian, New York 1985, pp. 47-78.

50. Among the 180 commentaries available in libraries, I recommend for English language readers those by J.FITZMYER, New York 1982; A.R.C.LEANEY, London 1958; and C.F.EVANS, London 1990. Other useful books are: H.CONZELMANN, The Theology of Saint Luke, London 1960; R.F.OTOOLE, The Unity of Luke's Theology, Wilmington 1984; I.H.MARSHALL, Luke - Historian and Theologian, Exeter 1979; A.STÖGER, The Gospel according to St.Luke for Spiritual Reading, London 1969.

51. H.DEGENHARDT, Lukas. Evangelist der Armen, Stuttgart 1965; W.E.PILGRIM, Good News to the Poor. Wealth and Poverty in Luke-Acts, Minneapolis 1981; R. J.CASSIDY, Jesus, Politics and Society, Maryknoll 1978; L.SCHOTTROFF and W.STEGEMANN, Jesus and the Hope of the Poor, Maryknoll 1986.

52. About the contrast rich-poor, see our WALKING ON WATER course The Gospel Transcends Barriers.

53. L.T JOHNSON, The Literary Function of Possessions in Luke-Acts, Missoula 1977; id., Sharing Possessions: Mandate and Symbol, Philadelphia 1981.

57. Luke 14,25-30; see also 18,24-26; 19,1-10; 21,1-4; and so on.

69. E.TETLOW, Women and Ministry in the New Testament, New York 1980; E.MOLTMANN WENDEL, The Women around Jesus, New York 1982; E.SCHUSSLER FIORENZA, In Memory of Her. A Feminist Theological Reconstruction of Christian Origins, New York 1983.

70. B.WITHERINGTON, 'On the Road with Mary Magdalene, Joanna, Susanna and Other Disciples - Luke 8,1-3', Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft 70 (1979) pp. 243-248; R.RYAN, 'The Women from Galilee and Discipleship in Luke', Biblical Theology Bulletin 15 (1985) pp. 56-59; J.BRUTSCHECK, Die Maria-Martha Erzählung, Frankfurt 1986; J.KOPAS, 'Jesus and Women: Luke's Gospel', Theology Today 42 (1986) pp. 192-202.

71. R.BROWN et al., Mary in the New Testament, New York 1978.

74. Luke likes the notion of 'witness', in Greek martus. Our word 'martyr' is derived from it.